Fear Of Failure Among College Athletes Psychology Essay

Fear Of Failure Among College Athletes Psychology Essay In sport, motivation and fear of failure are among the vital determinants of an athletes performance. The current study aims to study the role of gender on the type of motivation and the level of fear of failure among college athletes. The sample would be athletes between the ages of 18 25 and who are a part of their college sports team. The Sports Motivation Scale and The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory would be used to assess the type of motivation and the level of fear of failure respectively, among the participants. Results of the present study will aid in widening the scope of sports psychology and add to the field of psychology as a whole. Further, it will aid in giving an understanding into whether gender differences exist among athletes of Indian origin playing at the university level. Both counselors and coaches will have an insight into how better to ensure that sportspersons are reaching their full potential. INTRODUCTION With the growth of sports psychology, there has been an increased interest in the possible gender differences that exist with regard to sport participation and achievement (Branta, Painter Keiger 1987). The statement Participation in sport is primarily a masculine activity in American society (Czisma, Wittig, and Schurr, 1988) was stated owing to the number of males over females participating in sport. With regard to the Olympic Games, it was seen that in the year 1908, male athletes outnumbered females 53 to 1. In 1948, the ratio had decreased to 10 to 1. More recently, in 2012, this male female ratio compared to the past may be considered to have reached parity (Laine 2012). For the first time Saudi Arabia sent in two female athletes to compete at the games and statistics reveal that the number of females in the U.S team outnumbered the males by 269 women to 261 men. Even with regard to the medal count of the American contingent, the women won almost twice as many medals as the me n: 100 total medals as opposed to 59 for the men (Chappell 2012). One cannot ignore that socio cultural disparities exist across the world and in a country like India it is often considered that playing sport is not something that women do. Show of muscular strength is considered unladylike or masculine and this may keep girls from playing sports (Shakti 2005). Thereby, the question arises, to what extent do gender differences still exist with regard to sport? It is known that males comprise greater physical strength than women, this is largely on account of males having larger muscle mass ratio than females (Maughan R J, Watson J S, Weir J 1983). However, do males and females differ on internal factors such as the type of motivation and level of fear of failure? The current study seeks to investigate into this proposed question. Motivation Motivation may be understood as a combination of an internal drive that stems from within us and external factors that seek to influence it. The internal drive stemming from within is better known as intrinsic motivation, and may be defined engaging in an activity purely for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from doing the activity (Deci, 1975). A person who is intrinsically motivated, will engage in an activity irrespective of the presence of external materialistic rewards (Deci Ryan, 1985). Most researchers hold the view that intrinsic motivation may be looked upon as a global construct, Deci, 1975 and White, 1959 however came about with the ideology that intrinsic motivation may be subdivided into three categories 1) intrinsic motivation to know and understand here the primary reason for individuals to participate in an activity is to try something new or to learn a novel technique 2) Intrinsic motivation towards accomplishments here the main intention behind an individuals participation in an activity is for the individual to acquire mastery over a new technique or the accomplishment of goals set by themselves. 3) Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation the focus here is sensory pleasure and excitement derived during the course of engaging in the activity. Peak experiences or aesthetic stimulating experiences are a part of this form of intrinsic motivation. Contrary to intrinsic motivation Deci, 1975 defined extrinsic motivation as those behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sake. Originally it was thought that this form of motivation could only be influenced by external sources such as rewards. Deci, Ryan, Connell, Grolnick, in 1990 however felt that extrinsic motivation like intrinsic motivation could also be sub divided into the following forms 1) External regulation this refers to behaviours that are controlled by external rewards. 2) Introjections under this condition, external sources of motivation have been internalized, and internal forces such as guilt or shame serve to act as the drive. 3) Identification Under this condition the individual recognizes his/her behavior as worthy and of considerable value. Thus, the behavior engaged in is for external reasons but controlled internally by the individual. The last form of motivation, also known as Amotivation, is similar to learned helplessness (Abramson, Seligman, Teasdale, 1978). Amotivated individuals do not recognize a link between their actions and the outcomes, instead they undergo feelings of incompetence and lack of control (Deci,and Rayan 1985). In the case of Amotivation, neither intrinsic motivation nor extrinsic motivation is experienced and the end result may be that the individual ceases to participate in the given activity altogether. The link between internal and external forms of motivation may be seen in the cognitive evaluation theory formulated by Deci in 1975. This theory talks about the effects of external consequences on internal motivation. The cognitive evaluation theory talks about individuals motivation differing on account of their own perceptions of their ability to meet the desired goal, and the corresponding drive to do so. High levels of competence and self determination, results in increased intrinsic motivation and identification. On the other hand, it is seen that low levels of competence and self determination, results in a decrease in introjection, external regulation and amotivation (Deci Ryan, 1985, 1991). The cognitive evaluative theory is a sub theory of the self determination theory (SDT), which talks about the factors that drive individuals other than extrinsic rewards or reinforcement. It deals largely with psychological needs and conditions for individual growth which serve to be mo tivating factors. The extent to which a person is self-motivated or self-determined serves as the basis of this theory (Deci, Ryan, 2002). Thus, research has indicated a presence of both internal and external motivating factors that serve to be responsible of the extent to which a person immerses himself or herself in a given task. Further, it is based on these factors that the individual places value on task performance. Fear of failure Fear and anxiety are often misinterpreted for one another. Anxiety is generalized and the source is often hard to pinpoint. Fear on the other hand is a subjective emotion that triggers physiological changes (e.g., increased heart rate, muscle tension) and that has antecedents in the environment, leading to certain causal consequences in behavior (Gray, 1987). Fear results in an individual engaging in avoidance behaviours on account of an understanding that avoiding the situation at hand will prevent the unpleasant outcome that is feared from occurring (Barlow, 2002; Field Lawson, 2003; Gray, 1987). Theorists believe that fear as a construct exists from early childhood to adulthood (Field Lawson, 2003; Lawson, Banerjee, Field, 2007; Morris Kratochwill,1998). Fears serve an adaptive role during childhood towards real or imagined threat. They warn the individual of dangers that are lurking and motivate the individual to engage in escape or avoidance behaviours. However, on becoming excessive, intense, and persistent over time, fears may result in being extremely distressful thus act as a block towards academic and social progression (Field Lawson, 2003; Gullone, 1999). Three main forms of fear have been identified among children and adolescents, included are those of performance anxiety, social anxiety, and school phobia (King et al., 1998). The current study has its roots in performance anxiety and deals primarily with a fear of failure. Failure is known as the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective, and may be viewed as the opposite of success. As human beings, we all have an innate driven to achieve mastery in all spheres of life. Erick Erickson talked about a series of stages, each aimed at achieving mastery over specific domains. Mastery or success at each stage may be attained through repeated trial and error. It is only when failure is experienced and the individual overcomes it that success is arrived at. In todays society where cut throat competition is largely prevalent, individuals seek to go from one win to another. Loss or failure is something that is looked down upon and individuals begin to fear it even at a young age. A mild form of this fear may serve to be motivating but often it gets blown out of proportion resulting in a fear of failure. Athletes too, it is seen may generate a fear of failure when they worry about not getting what they want and have worked hard to obtain. On account of the growing nature of sports psychology, there has been an increased interest in the gender differences that may exist with regard to sport and sport related play. This study seeks to explain the gender differences specifically in relation to the type of motivation and levels of fear of failure that influence athletic performance. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Motivation and gender differences Considerable research has been done in the field of motivation and sport. Research has found that motivation has a direct influence on an individuals performance, persistence and learning (Duda, 1989; Vallerand, Deci, Ryan, 1987). It thereby, seeks to be a crucial factor in determining the extent to which athletes initiate, maintain and seek to grow in the field of sport. Further, focusing on the gender differences in types of motivation (intrinsic or extrinsic motivation), several studies have been done on the effect of scholarship and its relation to performance in sport. Ryan (1980) did a study on a sample of male football players and female athletes on scholarship. Results displayed that scholarship or an extrinsic stimulus, served to have a greater influence on the performance of male athletes than female athletes. Male athletes were thus found to have lower levels of intrinsic motivation on account of the impact of scholarship. In another study it was found that female athletes reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation than male athletes irrespective of the presence of scholarship (Fortier, Vallerand, Guay, 1995). Reed Cox, (2003) in a study titled The Effects of Athletic Scholarships on Motivation in Sport took a sample of 70 non-scholarship and 46 scholarship basketball players and assessed present and future levels of motivation. Results indicated that male scholarship athletes displayed higher levels of introjected regulation than female non-scholarship athletes, and higher levels of external regulation as compared to female scholarship athletes and all non-scholarship athletes. The current study was based solely in the country of Canada and the sample was taken from the sport of Basketball. Thereby this difference in the type of motivation among males and females cannot be generalized to other cultures or to sports that are played on an individual basis where team cohesion does not play a contributory role. Kingston et al., (2006) stated otherwise, and proved thorough a replication of a study conducted by Amorose and Hom, (2000) that regardless of gender, athletes on scholarship displayed higher levels of intrinsic motivation than non scholarship athletes. This indicates that external stimuli such as scholarship have a similar effect on the motivation of both males and females. Further, Kingston (2006) looked into aspects of extrinsic motivation, and found that collegiate male athletes demonstrated significantly higher levels of extrinsic motivation, specifically external regulation as compared to females. In a study aimed at measuring if gender and motivation type were related to athletes perceptions of team cohesion. Halbrook,. Blom, Hurley, Bell, Holden collected a sample of 253 male and female collegiate athletes. On administering the Sports Motivation Scale (SMS; Pelletier et al, 1995) and the Group Environment Questionnaire (EQ; Carrà ³n et al., 1985), results revealed significant positive correlations between perceptions of task and social cohesion with each of the three intrinsic motivation types and two extrinsic motivation types (i.e integrated regulation and identified regulation). Negative relationships were found to exist between amotivation and task and social cohesion. This study indicates that the Sports motivation scale is a good predictor of measuring the type of motivation among sports persons. Fear of failure and gender differences Fear of failure is also another crucial factor in determining an athletes involvement in sport. Unlike motivation that serves to be a driving force, fear of failure serves as a mar towards progression. H. A Murray (1938) was the person behind the conceptualization of dispositional achievement motivation as the combination of an individuals need for achievement which serves to be the approach motive and his/her fear of failure which acts as the avoidance motive. Both the avoidance motive and the achievement motive are characteristic of being stable in nature and are considered to have been socialized early in childhood (Birney et al., 1969; Conroy, 2003; Elliot Reis, 2003; Elliot Thrash, 2004; Hermans, ter Laak, Maes, 1972; McClelland et al., 1953; Teevan McGhee, 1972). This may in turn serve to be a contributory factor of gender differences that exist later in life. As stated above, classical achievement motivation theorists talked about the need for individuals to avoid failure and thus they thereby act or behave in ways that prevent the likelihood of experiencing the failure itself (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell, 1953). These early achievement motivation theories (Atkinson, 1964; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, Lowell, 1958) defined fear of failure as the motive to avoid failure because one feels shame and humiliation upon failure. Thus, fear of failure is prominent under conditions where individuals feel their ability is being judged and where there is a high chance of failure to occur, resulting in the person to seek escape or avoidance of the situation (Atkinson Feather, 1966; Birney, Burdick, Teevan, 1969). Sports related research on fear of failure has associated it with youth drop out rates and barriers to sport participation (Orlick, 1974). Failure and negative social evaluation are predominant sources of worry among many young athletes. Young elite athletes worries were related to primarily to the fear of failure, fear of negative evaluation, feelings of inadequacy, and external control or guilt (Gould, Horn, Spreemann, 1983). Research done on samples of youth wrestlers (Gould et al., 1983; Scanlan Lewthwaite, 1984) and runners (Feltz Albrecht, 1986) indicated that the major source of their fears revolved around making mistakes, not performing to their ability, not improving on their performance, not participating in championship events, and losing. Winning and losing are a part and parcel of every sport and from a very young age winning is something that individuals strive towards, loosing on the other is something that they learn to dread. A win serves to be a standard of succ ess while a loss becomes a threat and is considered as failure (Scanlan Lewthwaite, 1988). Pressure to be the best and achieve high standards of sporting performances, can bring with it increased levels of fear of failure among athletes (Hosek Man, 1989). A multidimensional and hierarchical model of fear of failure has been developed that incorporates previous findings on fear of failure. This model has been based on the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion (Lazarus, 1991). This theory talks about fear of failure being a result of the activation of cognitive schemas attached to situations that are fear provoking, on account of possible failure in those situations. Further, this theory states that individuals make evaluations of events and experience an associated anxiety on account of the meaning they attach to those situations. Thereby, an aversive interpretation of the consequences of failure leads individuals to fear failure itself (Birney, Burdick, Teevan, 1969; Conroy et al., 2001; Conroy et al., 2002). Conroy, Poczwardowski, and Henschen, (2001) used inductive content analysis to narrow down into five broad categories the aversive consequences of failure that individuals fear (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing ones self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, (d) important others losing interest, and (e) upsetting important others (Conroy, 2001; Conroy, Metzler, and Hofer, 2003; Conroy, Willow, and Metzler, 2002). In sum, it is seen that fear of failure is linked to maladaptive results in the undertaking of any given activity. In the year 2009, Sagar; Lavallee and Spray did a study titled Coping With the Effects of Fear of Failure: A Preliminary Investigation of Young Elite Athletes. Interviews were conducted on a one to one basis with nine young elite athletes (5 males, 4 females; ages 14-17 years) and revealed that fear of failure affected the athletes well-being, interpersonal behavior, sport performance, and schoolwork. This qualitative study indicates that there is a need for further research in the field of fear of failure with older athletes and how it may impact other related areas such as motivation. In addition, a quantitative study may serve to enhance the ability to generalize the results. Sagar, Boardley, and Kavussanu, (2011) found that male students reported higher levels of fear of significant others losing interest and a threat to their social standing.   Females on the other hand were more concerned with a fear of devaluing ones self-estimate, which in turn is said to be related to relatively lower competence levels in females as compared to males. In a study done by Elison, and Jeff, (2012) results revealed that females report fear of shame and embarrassment to a greater degree than males and fear of devaluing ones self estimate to a greater degree than males. Females also report need for approval and rumination to a larger extent than males. Thus, females tend to exhibit modestly greater fear of failure and perfectionism. The above studies indicate that there is a considerable need to make a contemporary research with regard to the prevalence of gender differences in the fear of failure of individuals within the sporting domain. Relationship between motivation, fear of failure and the role of gender Motivation it is seen may serve the role of approach or of avoidance. Contemporary goal theorists talk about the presence of two types of approach motivation, namely, mastery and performance goals. Mastery approach goals are found to correspond to high levels of intrinsic motivation while performance approach goals are found to correspond to high levels of extrinsic motivation (Elliot Church, 1997; Smith et al., 2002). Avoidance goals are said to correspond to the presence of Amotivation in individuals. Past research has repeatedly shown that need for achievement involves the taking up of mastery-approach and performance-approach goals, while fear of failure leads to the implementation of avoidance goals (mastery and performance) as well as performance-approach goals (Conroy, 2004; Conroy Elliot, 2004; Elliot Church, 1997; Elliot McGregor, 1999; Elliot McGregor, 2001; Elliot Sheldon, 1997; Schmalt, 2005; Thrash Elliot, 2002; Van Yperen, 2006). Another study done by Conroy and Elliot (2003) on 356 college students, revealed that fear of failure was positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach and performance-avoidance achievement goals. Though this study has been done in the academic setting, it would be of interest to find individuals displayed similar mannerisms in the context of sport. Nien Duda, (2008) did do a study on 450 British male and female athletes. The study was aimed at identify revealing gender differences in the multiple achievement goal measurement model. Questionnaires assessing approach and avoidance achievement goals, perceived sport competence, fear of failure, and motivation regulations, were administered to the athletes. Only partial invariance was supported with respect to the antecedents achievement goals-consequences model. Further, gender differences were not revealed amidst the paths between fear of failure to mastery-avoidance goal, mastery-approach goal to intrinsic motivation, and performance-approach goal to extrinsic motivation. In a country like India, where gender differences are so apparent across several domains, it is important that we research into the extent to which gender may play a role in the field of sport. Further, this study revealed that both the Sports Motivation Scale (SMS; Pelletier et al., 1995) and The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory by David E. Conroy are can be used to measure the type of motivation and levels of fear of failure among athletes. Indian Studies A study done by Rathee and Singh, (2011) measured the levels of achievement motivation, emotional and social adjustment among international and national players of various team sports. For this purpose, 240 Indian players were selected from the sports of basketball, hockey and handball. The achievement motivation test was administered to the athletes and results indicated that international players had higher levels of achievement motivation, and were better adjusted than national players. Further, gender studies indicated that there were little or no differences among the players at that level. The current study focused primarily on achievement motivation and did not consider gender differences with regard to the type of motivation (intrinsic or extrinsic) and the possible effect it may have on levels of fear of failure. Sporting participation of individuals at lower levels of competition such as inter college competitions has not be studied in the above case and there is need to d o so for national and international players come into the category of elite sportsmen and they thereby may have different factors influencing their participation. METHEDOLOGY Rationale for this study Psychology is a rapidly growing field and sport psychology in particular has found to be crucial in the churning out of ace class athletes around the world. In India, where gender differences are apparent across various domains, it is crucial that it be taken into consideration while dealing with persons in the counseling setting. Motivation and fear of failure serve to act as push and a pull factors for individuals indulging in any given activity. It is thereby essential that we investigate into these two variables and whether gender has a role to play in the field of sport. This will serve to add to the limited research done in the field of motivation and fear of failure, especially so with regard to the Indian context. Scope of this study The present study will aid in creating awareness in relation to the influence of gender in the type of motivation and the level of fear of failure that Indian athletes at the college level may experience. It will further aid in counselors and coaches to be more sensitive to the needs of athletes with regard to aspects of motivation and fear of failure. Operational definitions In the following is an understanding of the operational and constitutive definitions of the various variables under study: Gender: The state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones). (Oxford dictionary) Motivation: Motivation may be understood as a combination of an internal drive that stems from within us and external factors that seek to influence it. (Deci 1975) Intrinsic motivation: intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity purely for the pleasure and Satisfaction derived from doing the activity (Deci, 1975). Extrinsic motivation: extrinsic motivation pertains to a wide variety of behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sake (Deci, 1975). Amotivation: experiencing feelings of incompetence and lack of control (Deci Ryan, 1985) Fear of failure: An association between a specific stimuli and threat triggers fear response and avoidance behaviour Because such behaviour is believed to prevent the unpleasant outcome that is feared (Barlow, 2002; Field Lawson, 2003; Gray, 1987). Indian: a native or inhabitant of India, or a person of Indian descent (Oxford dictionary) Colligate athletes: a term encompassing college and university level competitive sports personnel. Aim To study the effect of gender on the type of motivation and the level of fear of failure among colligate athletes. Objectives To measure the effect of gender on the type of motivation among athletes. To measure the effect of gender on the level of fear of failure of among athletes. To study the correlation between the type of motivation and the level of fear of failure among athletes. Research design The questionnaire method will be employed for the purpose of research. Here a certain sample of male and female participants will be studied in relation to the variables of motivation and the fear of failure using a single -point questionnaire assessment. Hypothesis In the following are the various hypotheses that were formulated: The motivation subscales of intrinsic motivation to learn and know, to experience stimulation, and toward accomplishments, as well as integrated regulation would have negative relationships with fear of failure. The motivation subscales of identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and amotivation would have positive relationships with fear of failure. There would be an interaction between gender and motivation type as well as gender and fear of failure. Sample The sample would consist of students aged 18 25. All individuals who are currently on the college team will be contacted from sports played on an individual basis such as tennis, table tennis, badminton and athletics. The participants will be from universities situated in the city of Bangalore. A minimum sample size of 60, including 30 men and 30 women is to be sought. Inclusion Criteria- Aged 18 25 Individuals who are currently of the college team. Individuals who are of Indian nationality or Indian decent. Exclusion Criteria- Individuals who do not have at least one parent who is Indian and is of nationality other than Indian. Individuals who are not of the college team. Tools: A Socio-Demographic Data Sheet was formulated for the purpose of obtaining information regarding the participants gender, age, ethnicity, form of sport, year of joining university, no years of having played sport and level of competition. To assess the participants type of motivation Sport Motivation Scale (SMS 28) by Pelletier et al., (1995) will be employed. It assess individuals on the type of motivation 1) Intrinsic motivation which includes intrinsic motivation to know and understand, intrinsic motivation towards accomplishments and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, 2) Extrinsic motivation which includes integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and external regulation and lastly is that of Amotivation. Pelletier et al (1995) sampled 593 university athletes and found adequate internal consistency among seven of the eight subscales, with Cronbachs alpha ranging from .74 to .80. All subscales were found to have a high positive correlation between one another, with the correlation weakening only between amotivation and intrinsic motivation, which makes theoretical sense. This reliability was also verified in another study by Kingston et al., (2006) with collegiate studen t athletes; the mean Cronbachs alpha score for the subscales was at least .80, except for the identification subscale which was below .70. In addition, the SMS has shown strong logical validity and adequate content validity (Li Harmer, 1996; Pelletier et al., 1995). To assess the level of fear of failure of the participants The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory by David E. Conroy is to be employed. Normative data of 440 males and females may be obtained. Initial research has found the subscales to exhibit acceptable internal consistency and has provided evidence supporting the factorial and external validity of the measure (Conroy et al., 2003). Previous research has proved that both these scales are appropriate for measuring the type of motivation and fear of failure of athletes playing at the university level. Procedure Pilot phase As part of the pilot phase, the head of the sports department of colleges in Bangalore will be contacted. Further, on obtaining permission to carry out the research, team captains of the various existing individual sports will be contacted and meetings set up with their entire team for the purpose of administration of the questionnaires. Main phase The sample would be collected from sports played on an individual basis. Post setting up meetings with the team, male and female participants are to be briefed in a group regarding the nature of the research. The participants are permitted to withdraw from the research if they wished to. Those who volunteer to be a part of the study would be each given an envelope containing two copies of the consent form, a demographics questionnaire, the sports motivation scale and the fear of failure appraisal inventory. Further, they would be first asked to fill up the consent form and the demographic questionnaire. A copy of the consent form is to be given to the participants for future reference. The instructions for the two scales (SMS and The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory) were given separately and the respondents were asked to not skip any question or to think too much before giving an answer. On the completion of the questionnaires, the participants were to enclose it in self sea led envelopes and hand it over to the researcher. Analysis of data The data will be coded using Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Means and Standard deviations are to be independently calculated or male and female participants on their scores on the SMS and Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory. T-tests will be used to examine gender differences in the variables of motivation and fear of failure. Correlation analysis is to be made use of to analyze the association between the variables studied. Ethical considerations: The setting for administration was done in a comfortable arena that had good ventilation and illumination. A general outline of the study was explained to all the participants contacted for th

Abe Lincoln :: essays research papers fc

History Essay The United Sates declared its independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776. Great Britain did not recognize its independence until, the Treaty of Paris, two years after the American forces defeated the Britain army at the siege of Yorktown. Since the Articles of Confederation were replaced by the U.S. Constitution in 1789, the United States has had forty-two different presidents. Among these presidents, two of the best have were George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln. This essay will prove that George Washington was the greatest U.S. president of all time. There are certain attributes that good presidents have. It is said that â€Å"good presidents are always stubborn and disagreeable.† 1 Along with those two qualities good presidents are intelligent, selfless, hard working, good communicators, good listeners, good problem solving tactics, determination, and they are able to recognize problems. George Washingtons rise to power started in 1732 when he was born , in Westmoreland, Virginia on his father’s farm. He lived until 1799, when he died at the age of sixty-seven. He served as president from 1789 threw until 1797. When growing up, George received most of his education from his father and older brother. â€Å"When he was 17 he was named the surveyor of Culpeper County, this was the first public office position he held.†2 When Washington was finished surveying, â€Å"in November of 1752, he was appointed the adjutant in the colonial militia. His first mission did not come until the following summer, when he volunteered to take a message from Governor, to the French commander. Following this mission he was brought to the kings attention, and he was given a lieutenant colonels commission.†3 Washington showed his opposition to Britain started in 1759 when he became a member of Virginia’s House of Burgesses. â€Å"He was known to be shy and reserved†4 but he opposed the British rules and regulations that they placed on the Americans and protested the Stamp Act and the Townshend act which in both cases placed taxes on people without consulting them. This was known as taxation without representation. After serving in the House of Burgesses for 15 years he was elected to the Continental congress. â€Å"On June 15, 1775 the Continental Congress unanimously elected him general and commander in chief of its army. They chose George because he was respected for his military abilities, his selflessness, and his strong commitment towards colonial freedom.†5 General George Washington led his men and his country too freedom in the American war of independence. Abe Lincoln :: essays research papers fc History Essay The United Sates declared its independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776. Great Britain did not recognize its independence until, the Treaty of Paris, two years after the American forces defeated the Britain army at the siege of Yorktown. Since the Articles of Confederation were replaced by the U.S. Constitution in 1789, the United States has had forty-two different presidents. Among these presidents, two of the best have were George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln. This essay will prove that George Washington was the greatest U.S. president of all time. There are certain attributes that good presidents have. It is said that â€Å"good presidents are always stubborn and disagreeable.† 1 Along with those two qualities good presidents are intelligent, selfless, hard working, good communicators, good listeners, good problem solving tactics, determination, and they are able to recognize problems. George Washingtons rise to power started in 1732 when he was born , in Westmoreland, Virginia on his father’s farm. He lived until 1799, when he died at the age of sixty-seven. He served as president from 1789 threw until 1797. When growing up, George received most of his education from his father and older brother. â€Å"When he was 17 he was named the surveyor of Culpeper County, this was the first public office position he held.†2 When Washington was finished surveying, â€Å"in November of 1752, he was appointed the adjutant in the colonial militia. His first mission did not come until the following summer, when he volunteered to take a message from Governor, to the French commander. Following this mission he was brought to the kings attention, and he was given a lieutenant colonels commission.†3 Washington showed his opposition to Britain started in 1759 when he became a member of Virginia’s House of Burgesses. â€Å"He was known to be shy and reserved†4 but he opposed the British rules and regulations that they placed on the Americans and protested the Stamp Act and the Townshend act which in both cases placed taxes on people without consulting them. This was known as taxation without representation. After serving in the House of Burgesses for 15 years he was elected to the Continental congress. â€Å"On June 15, 1775 the Continental Congress unanimously elected him general and commander in chief of its army. They chose George because he was respected for his military abilities, his selflessness, and his strong commitment towards colonial freedom.†5 General George Washington led his men and his country too freedom in the American war of independence.

recommendation essay :: essays research papers fc

Dear NCAA Executive Committee,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My name is David Brown and I am the starting quarterback for the Nittany Lions here a Penn State University. I am writing to you on behalf of my fellow intercollegiate athletes, because I feel as though we are being used. Each year my Penn State teammates and I, as well as other high-profile college teams generate millions of dollars in revenue, yet we do not get paid for our services. Millions of dollars are made every year from food, drinks, tickets, and merchandise sales because of our strenuous work, not to mention the billions of dollars made from selling TV rights to our games to major networks. Intercollegiate sports are a big business in which the players are â€Å"slave laborers.† I am not suggesting that we be given an annual salary, but I feel that we should be given stipend or some financial assistance in addition to scholarship money. For the past few years many have argued that student-athletes should be thankful for their educational opportunities in college, including the cost of tuition, books, room and board (which would be around $17,000 here at Penn State). Many also argue that if we are paid for our performances, other college talents should be paid for their contributions to their schools. However, when one looks at the vast difference in the amounts of money that different groups bring in, it makes sense why we are resentful at the millions of dollars being made off of our sweat and tears. For instance my former teammate Larry Johnson put his heart and soul into playing for the past four years. His jerseys were sold for $50 each all year around, and he never saw a dime of that money. This is just one of the many examples of unfair compensation. Each year we are under enormous pressure to perform well in the classroom and in sports and I feel that if we were given a stipend it would help alleviate some of stress we go through. As college athletes we give up many freedoms. Going to parties, hanging out with friends, or relaxing is just a few of the activities that we are unable to take part in. One of the biggest freedoms we give up is being able to hold a part time job. Although the NCAA recently lifted the rule that stated â€Å"players are not allowed to hold jobs during their playing season,† it is nearly impossible for us to work.

Social Inequality Essay -- Sociology

Social inequality is a topic that has been debated for 1000’s of years, and remains a very fluid topic today. It’s fair to assume that there isn’t a defining reason as to why certain societies have progressed faster than others, as we can inly give theory as to why we see advanced, industrialized states; while other societies have failed to establish the technology often assumed with modernized nations. Jared Diamond, professor of geography and physiology at the University of California, Los Angeles has dedicated much of his adult life researching why social inequality exists. What Diamond has theorized, through his extensive study of hunter and gatherer societies of tribal Papua New Guinea, and his subsequent study of ancient Eurasian societies, was the environment which bound these cultures was the sole reason as to whether or not they advanced to a modern state. Opponents to Diamond’s theory have proposed differing theories, ranging from the societies r eligious beliefs, to whether or not the society practiced an egalitarian way of living, all of which can be debated as to justifiable causes of social inequality. Others believe Diamond’s theory is to obscure, citing that the ability of a society to adapt and make use of its natural environment is an over simplistic explanation to an issue for which there isn’t a definitive answer. So the question remains, why have certain societies progressed faster than others? Agreeing with Diamond’s theory, I believe the answer lies solely in the ability of a given society to farm, and of equal importance the type of farming each culture’s environment provides them. Nutritional resources are of great importance in Diamond’s theory as to why certain societies progressed more rapidly than oth... ...ffort or innovation, the environment that surrounds your culture, and many other societies still experiencing social inequality, is not suitable for proper expansion. References Cooper, Zarine. â€Å"Archaeology and History: Early Settlements in the Andaman Islands.† Journal of Asian Studies 63.3 (2004): 820-822. JSTOR. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel. Tim Lambert James Gold. Pbs. youtube. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. . Harris, Marvin, and Orna Johnson. Cultural Anthroplogy. 7th ed. 2000. Boston: Pearson, 2007. N. pag. Print. Nanda, Serena, and Richard Warms. â€Å"Tribal Warfare.† Cultural Anthroplogy. 10th ed. 2010. N.p.: n.p., 2010. 245. books.com. Web. 2 May 2012. Richerson. â€Å"Horticultural Societies.† booksonline. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 May 2012. .

Communication skills Essay

Communication is a vital human process that people practice and commit to everyday. Communication is used by people to in interacting with one another and in developing or establishing a particular relationship with the other participants involved in the communication process. Through communication, people are able to understand each other’s views and ideas. There are various types of communication used by people. As such, messages can be conveyed by using different ways and means of communicating with others. One of the important types of communication is through public speaking. We often see this type of communication among public officials when conducting their speeches and any person with authority rendering important messages. Public speaking is a form of mass communication devised to address a diverse group of people at one time. Public speaking is an art or process of addressing the public. It is also a form of an effective oral communication in front of an audience (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2009). Public speaking is often regarded as an art just like acting and dancing. This misconception led us to alter or conceal the usefulness of public speaking. There are two types of art, aesthetics and useful arts. The two is far different from each other. Aesthetic arts aim to render entertainment, and as such giving pleasure is its main goal. On the other hand, useful arts aim to accomplish a material and useful ends (Dolman, 2008). Public speaking is a real communication between persons and is a form of practice of the useful art. In instances, public speaking may pave the way for a significant change. Public speaking is often neglected and overlooked by people who think it is not important for thinking that they will never be engaged in speaking in public. But sometimes, unexpected situations arise as we are called for a presentation of a topic in front of a large and diverse audience. It is no longer an issue if public speaking should be included in the comprehensive curricula of schools and universities. The place of public speaking in the campuses has long been established for its assumed relevance to the people once they have to face reality and its challenges. Teaching this course, maybe in one form or another, is important in a child’s education. It is assumed that students are not only trained to have knowledge in effective communication, but also teaches them rigid intellectual discipline (Winter, 2005). Regardless of your personality and what line of job you are doing, you will never know when the time to speak in front of an audience has risen. The training offered in schools serves as a preparation for the future needs for effective oral communication. It may be an academic presentation or a big company address. In both these fields, effective public speaking is required in addressing the audience. Some people do not give high importance in acquiring good public speaking skills thinking that the skill is designed for public officials and salesman. Good public speaking skill is the gem of good and effective communication skills and acquiring such skills may be essential in one’s career. Even if you are signing up for a new job, employers consider the communication skills both spoken and written and become part of their hiring decision. Skills in public speaking do not only prove as useful in addressing large audiences but it is also inter-related with the other communication skills of a person. As you improve your public speaking skills, you also improve your interpersonal communication with your peers and family. The skill in public speaking has become exceedingly useful to people and to the traditional and contemporary society. No one exactly ever knows who will be the next leaders of the society. Once leadership is achieved by an individual, the skill in public speaking is very important and indispensable. Every prominent man and woman in every field is often required to address different kinds of audiences once a while (Hayworth, 2005). There are a number of reasons why people should learn public speaking and why every student should take such course. First, almost every one of us will be required to be involved in public speaking at some point in our lives. It may be a simple class reporting or recitation or an inaugural speech, preparation and knowledge is vital to every person as they engage in such activity. In addition, employers value the skill in public speaking in finding their potential employees. Acquiring a skill or formal education in public speaking will give the person an edge or an advantage in finding a job. Lastly, being an effective speaker renders one the tool to significantly change and make a difference in your business or community (MoneyInstructor. com, n. d. ). A person may not know what type of career he or she will end up working. It may be in a fast food chain or in a big company, where constant communication with clients and customers require effective communication. Public speaking may be able to teach how to compose oneself in dealing with clients and customers and how to relate to them through various types of communication. Moreover, students will not only develop their communication skill when taking up this course. Learning the subject may offer them the ability and capacity to meet the demands of life. In the class, they will develop more poise and confidence that may help and enable them to face situations which require such skills and abilities (Hayworth, 2005). Learning public speaking skills will not only improve your communication skills but will also improve discipline, posture, and boost one’s confidence. Communication skills may continue to improve over the years, the key is constant practice and developing these skills. References Dolman, J. (2008). A Handbook of Public Speaking. Charleston, SC:BiblioBazaar, LLC. Hayworth, D. (2005). Public Speaking. USA: Kessinger Publishing. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2009). Public Speaking. Retrieved February 16, 2009, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/public speaking. MoneyInstructor. com. (n. d). Introduction to Public Speaking. Retrieved February 16, 2009, from http://www. moneyinstructor. com/lesson/pspeakintro. asp. Winter, I. L. (2005). Public Speaking: Principles and Practice. USA: Kessinger Publishing.

Queen Elizabeth: Golden Age

Elizabeths roaring Age Elizabeth was world-beater of England from 1558-1603. During that time England was a strong farming and she was a prospering queen. Mevery nation suasion Elizabeth would non last pine with away a right maintain simply they were proved wrong. In fact Elizabeth was actu solelyy sly in non choosing a husband. She didnt choose a husband beca recitation she didnt urgency anybody taking oer her great deal. There were four men that she could pee married simply say no to. The first reality was Philip of Spain. Philip of Spain had married Elizabeths sister bloody shame and was expecting Elizabeth to say yes to his proposal.Elizabeth turn him pour win though because she didnt take to marry the same man as her sister and withal Philip was a near Catholic. The English didnt like foreigners and detested Catholic ones notwithstanding more. There had been a rebellion when bloody shame had married Philip. This was anformer(a)(prenominal) reason why Elizabeth decided non to marry Philip. An roughly other man whom Elizabeth could pay married was Charles of Austria. She decided against him as headspring though because she thought that he would use England to fight his own wars and she didnt want England to get caught up in other countries squabbles.Elizabeth could allow also married a wealthy nobleman from a powerful English family and decided against him likewise as if she had married him then the other noblemen could have got jealous and started a rebellion. She was also clever in non marrying a nobleman because if she kept them all barb then they would all remain true nucleused as they would all think that they had a run a risk to get some wealth and power. The last man of which she turned down was Robert Dudley who was a good looking man and whose wife had just passed a course. Elizabeth turned him down too though as she thought that he might take the chance to steal her throne away from her.Even though Elizabeth was very clever in not choosing a husband that would take oer all her power, some sexist historians leave argue that although Elizabeth didnt have a husband she had excellent Male advisors who helped and support her through with(predicate) turn up her reign. One of these men was William Cecil or Lord Burghley. During his time, William Cecil helped Elizabeth through her reign and was constantly thither for her. He litigated her as secretary, served her as position of Lord Treasurer and unneurotic with the help of Sir Francis Walsingham devised an intricate spy vane that helped uncover the Babington Plot.He was also instrumental in having Mary Queen of Scots penalize and even when he had lost his comprehend at the age of seventy, continued to serve Elizabeth who looked upon him as a father figure. He carried on serving Elizabeth all the way until his death in 1598. One of her greatest challenges was to hold England together despite the sacred divisions amongst her people. Eli zabeth did this by setting a substance road. Elizabeth wanted England to have peace and not be divided over religion. She essay to find ways which both the Catholic and Protestant sides would accept and be happy.She draw and quarter Protestantism the official religion in England. She did not call herself the Head of the Church of England, quite she was known as the Supreme regulator of the English Church. To please the Protestants she made all churches use the prayer defend in English that Edward had used and allowed the priests once again to marry. To please the Catholics she made some changes to some words in the prayer book and also let priests were special vestments. She did not give way to extremists though and would revenge them. Even though she would punish Protestants and Catholics she would of all time punish Catholics more severely.If a Protestant extremist wrote a book manifestation any thing bad or wrong about Elizabeths decisions to divide the rude peacefully w ould have their writing hand chopped off to snap them writing any more books. moreover if a Catholic extremist was caught trying to convert soul to Catholicism then they would be arrested, pain and then eventually hanged. Elizabeths handling of the extremists may have seemed horrible but it got the message across and England ended up much better than it had started off. Elizabeth bonkt with opposition from internal the country effectively.She didnt only deal with extremists but also dealt with Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary presented to Scotland after her first husbands death. She married again to her first cousin, henry Stuart (Lord Darnley) four years later but their union was unhappy and in February 1567 there was a big explosion at their house and Darnley was found dead in the garden, apparently strangled. She currently married mob Hepburn who was actually the main murder leery for Lord Darnleys murder. But soon after, following an uprising against the couple, Mary was enwrapped in a castle.After an unsuccessful travail to reclaim the throne, Mary fled to England to seek protection from her first cousin, once removed, Elizabeth. Elizabeth had Mary arrested though as soon as she was in the country. This was because of the threat that Mary pre directed, who had previously claimed the throne to be her own. Mary spent nineteen years in custody, guarded in castles and manor houses across England until she was tried and put to death by Elizabeth for her involvement in the Babington plot, a plot to assassinate Elizabeth.Elizabeths give-and-take of Mary not just helped stop the Babington plot but helped Elizabeths make of England too. This is because Elizabeth had executed one of the head Catholics which make the others think again and had also helped her since Mary would have been the next in line of work to the throne after Elizabeth. A successful ruler needs to keep her country safe. Elizabeth did this by defeating the Spanish Armada. Philip of S pain thought Elizabeth as an illegitimate ruler of England. Elizabeth had also helped the Dutch in the Dutch revolt against Spain.As retaliation, Philip sent out a go on of ships, Armada, to infest and conquer England. The pass away set out with 22 warships and an intention of sailing through the English Channel. Philips plan was deprivation well and the Armada had reached its first goal, to anchor at the coastal border area surrounded by France and the Spanish Netherlands. While awaiting communications from the host that would invade the South East of England, it was set from its anchorage by an English go up ship attack. England had al erect defeated many of the Spanish ships so the Spanish fleet decided regroup and withdraw north.A return voyage to Spain was plotted and the fleet sailed into the Atlantic, ultimo Ireland but severe storms disrupted the fleets course. More than 24 vessels were wreck insuring that England had victory. There was one thing that got the Engli shmen ready and motivated and that was Elizabeths speech. During her speech she said I know I have the body of a weak and exhausted woman, but I have the heart and soul of a King, and a cordial of England too Throughout her reign Elizabeth apothegm the importance of maintaining an image.She got artists to paint depictings of her throughout her life. But she didnt just have prescript portraits painted, she had them painted with significant things in. An example of this is that she would be wearing very expensive dress to collection she had wealth. During her paintings she could also have a bible in her hand to give tongue to that she held power over the religions, she could have a map in her hand to show that she ruled over the world and in one of her portraits she had Elizabeth Regina (Elizabeth Queen) written behind her.She is also clever in one of these photos as if you look at the top of the portrait you see the Spanish Armada sailing out to invade England on the left, Elizabeth herself is in the lay and then you have the wrecks of the Spanish Armada on the right. If we look for one single thing that made Elizabeth successful it must be her intelligence. I have chosen this because she was clever in not choosing a husband, she sorted out the religious divisions, she defeated an Armada with a single speech and also well-kept a perfect image throughout. This is why, even today, her reign is known as The Golden Age. By Joe Tapper.

Disadvantages of Using Cell Phone in School Essay

Mobile phones enable children and parents to remain in touch.For me, not giving a phone is the personal best solution. Having a phone opens up the opportunity good for others to do bad things.We want to minimise the risk factors. Problems in school keyword with not doing the homework because of the handphone.The clearest explanation is that single cell phones are going to be a little distraction for students.Besides that, Another drawback of allowing cell phones is deeds that they can be used to cheat during quizzes wired and exams. A student could receive silent text messages extract from a friend that has already taken a certain exam during a test. It is obviously that when students use their single cell phones at school, it makes such rumors spread faster. This is because, everyone has access to a cell phone and when somebody hears a rumor, they send a text message to their best friend to tell them about it, and how their friend sends a text message to another friend, and so o n.

Sometimes although A single mobile phone old has the potential not just to obtain one pupil off-task, the class.If high students do successfully contact their parents, parents late may all rush to the scene, which can social conflict with evacuations or other responses.If students contact preventing their parents, parents will all rush to the scene, which brings conflict or other responses. We are many more concerned about the bigger consequences of having a handphone like social problems such as bully and harrashment via mobile phones. Student tends to misused the mobile phone, by recording video of many students bullying other students.When they are misused, they become hazardous.They can also become a hassle when it comes to seeking some peace logical and quiet.

It is a technology that is not missing letter from our lives.Almost everybody has a cell phone.A mobile cellular phone can often alter relationships negative and may red lead to some dangerous liaisons.These days, it is one of the issues in Afghanistan.

Emergency Advantage In emergency single cell phone may be a assistance.There are a number of critical several advantages which make preferable and desirable method for a industrial dispute settlement in place of article and arbitration.Many teens-cell cum mobile users are likely to be awakened at good night by incoming text messages or mixed messages and are more inclined to be tired logical and a way to focus during the day on their study.Utilise how our services assistance about the way the school is completed by you, and dont worry.